TED 402 NOTES LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH DESIGN

TED 402 - LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH DESIGNS

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that we learn from and build on what others have done. Scientific research is a collective effort of many researchers who share their results with one another and who pursue knowledge as a community.

Today’s studies build on those of yesterday. Researchers read studies to compare, replicate, or criticize them for weaknesses.

Goals of a Literature Review

• To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A review tells the reader that the researcher knows the research in an area and knows the major issues.
• To know the path of prior research and how a current research project is linked to it. A review outlines the direction, ability, and background of research on a question and shows the development of knowledge.
• To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A review pulls together and synthesizes different results.
• To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review tells what others have found so that a researcher can benefit from the efforts of others.
• Identification of variables. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study.
• Helps in developing theoretical and conceptual framework.

Where to find the Research Literature

1. Internet search (on line systems)
2. Scholarly journals
3. Books – containing reports of original research, or collection of research articles
4. Dissertations
5. Government documents (seculars, reports,)
6. Government policies and Research papers.

CITATION IN THE TEXT

i)                Single author/citation: List the author’s last name followed by date of publication

•        Katunzi (2005) point out the effects… or in discussing issues of the centralized education system (Katunzi, 2005) argues…

ii)              Two or more authors/citations: List all names in the first citation and use at al. in subsequent citations

•        Alphonce, Dachi, and Galabawa (2008) examine… or … agreed on the need for special education (Alphonce et al., 2008).

iii)            Multiple citations: List the citations alphabetically and separate the citations with a semicolon.

•        Several studies (Katabaro, 2000; Mosha, 2002; URT, Mwinuka 2005)…

 

GENERAL RULES OF REFERENCING

• All references should be alphabetized by the last names (surnames) of authors of each source.
• Each reference should use a hanging indentation: the first line of the reference should be flush left, but each additional line of the reference needs to be indented.
• In article titles, only the first letter should be capitalized. If a colon appears in the title, the first letter after the colon should also be capitalized. The title should not be placed in quotations, underlined or italicized.
• All major words in the title of a journal should be capitalized; i.e. The Journal of the Teofilo Kisanji University.

 

FORMAT EXAMPLES

Books:

Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company.

Examples:

Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating tables. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 

Encyclopedia & Dictionary:

Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: Publishing company.

Examples:

Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book.

Magazine & Newspaper Articles:

Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number (issue number if available), inclusive pages.

Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers.

Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.

Examples:

Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72.

Trillin, C. (1993, February 15). Culture shopping. New Yorker, pp. 48-51.

Website or Webpage:

Format:

Online periodical: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full URL

Online document: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL

Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use "n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL.

Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.

Examples:

Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html

Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html 

Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon.

RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODOLOGY

Research methodology is a systematically way solve the research problem. Research methodology is a collective term for the structured process of conducting research. It is usually a guideline system for solving research problem, with specific components such as tasks, methods, techniques and tools. Research methodology includes research design, data gathering and data analysis.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Research design refers to the structure of an enquiry. It encompasses the methods and procedures employed to conduct scientific research. Thus, research design is the strategy, the plan, and the structure of conducting a research project.

It is also considered as a “blueprint” for research dealing with at least four problems: which questions to study, which data are relevant, which data to collect and how to analyze the results

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

• the means of obtaining information;
• the availability and skills of the researcher and supporting staff, if any;
• the objective of the problem to be studied;
• the nature of the problem to be studied; and
• the availability of time and other resources for the research work.

Research techniques refer to the instruments/tools we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.

Important Concepts Relating to Research Designs

a) Variables and Types of Variables

Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. There are two types of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, or amount (e.g. amount of education). The second type of concept and measures of the concept are variables. A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere.

For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female.

Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed.

Types of Variables

i) Continuous and Discontinuous variables: Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If the values of a variable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable. Such a variable can take infinite number of values. Income, temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions, is a discontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or classificatory variable, or discrete variable. Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a property: employed-unemployed or male-female have two values.

ii) Dependent and Independent Variables: Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search for its causes.

The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else, is the independent variable. The variable that is the effect or is the result or outcome of another variable is the dependent variable (also referred to as outcome variable or effect variable). The independent variable is “independent of” prior causes that act on it, whereas the dependent variable “depends on” the cause. Independent variables affect or have an impact on other variables. When independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable.

iii) Moderating variable: A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable. For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X) and the performance of the students (Y).

iv) Intervening variable: A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable. A third type of variable, the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal relationships. It comes between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between them. The intervening variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent variable and acts as an independent variable toward the dependent variable.

b) Research hypothesis

Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.

c) Experimental and control groups

Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’. In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control groups.

Categories of research designs

i) Quantitative research designs

• Experiments - Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
• Surveys (Types of survey) –
• Correlational research – Usually indicate strengths and direction of the relationship between variables.

ii) Qualitative research designs

• Case Study – focus on developing an in-analysis of single or multiplecases. Uses interviews, archival records, observations and artifacts for data collection. Its analysis depends on descriptions, themes, and assertions.
• Exploratory research – The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.
• Phenomenology
• Ethnography

POPULATION, SAMPLE SIZE & SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Population is defined as all the existing members of the group from which sample is drawn for which conclusion is made (Ary et al., 2002). Target population (reference population) – Is that population about which an investigator wishes to draw a conclusion.

Study population (population sampled): Population from which the sample is actually drawn and about which a conclusion can be made.

Sample according to Cohen et al, (2000) is a small group of respondents drawn from the population in which the researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusion.

SAMPLE SIZE

Kothari (2004) argues that for the sample size to be representatives, it must range from 10-15% of the entire study population. Therefore, during sampling process, researcher has to consider this in order to come out with valid generalization or conclusion.

Sampling technique refers to the process of selecting the sample participants from the population for the purpose of the study (Ary et al, 2002). Sampling frame: The list of units from which the sample is drawn or selected. The existence of an adequate and up-to-date sampling frame often defines the study population. A sample must be representative.

Sampling is done for the purpose of measuring some elements of the population and drawing conclusions regarding the entire population.

Sampling techniques is categorized into probability and non probability sampling.

Probability sampling gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability sampling does not involve random selection while probability sampling does

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple random sampling is the form that researcher assures that all the members of the population are included in the list and then randomly selected.

The researcher randomly selects the final list of subjects from the different strata.

2. Systematic Sampling: Individuals are chosen at regular intervals (for example, every 5th, 10th, etc.) from the sampling frame. Ideally we randomly select a number to tell us where to start selecting individuals from the list. For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from 1000 students of a school. The sample size is decided to be 100. The sampling fraction is: 100/1000 = 1/10.

OR, if a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would be selected randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item would automatically be included in the sample.

3. Cluster Random sampling.

Clusters are often geographic units (e.g. districts, villages) or organizational units (e.g.clinics). This is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible because of the size of the population. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas.

Cluster sampling: When a list of groupings of study units is available (E.g.villages, etc.) or can be easily compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly selected. The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead of the selection of study units individually is called cluster sampling.

In cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of relatively small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.

4. Stratified sampling: This is where certain attributes or characteristic is considered such as, residents from urban and rural areas), then the sampling frame must be divided into groups. Stratified sampling is done for administrative reasons or for representative reasons.

Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Convenience sampling: is a method in which for convenience sake the study units that happen to be available at the time of data collection are selected. Members of the population are chosen based on their relative ease of access.

2. Snowball Sampling: The first respondent refers a friend. The friend also refers a friend, etc.

3. Quota Sampling: is a method that insures that a certain number of sample units from different categories with specific characteristics appear in the sample so that all these characteristics are represented. In this method the investigator interviews as many people in each category of study unit as he can find until he has filled his quota.

4. Purposeful sampling: This is typically used when focusing on a limited number of informants, whom we select strategically so that their in-depth information will give optimal insight into an issue about which little is known. Respondents are selected according to their merits or profession. The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study.

REFERENCES

APA (2009). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th Edition). Washington, DC.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., and Razavieh, A. (2002). Introduction to Research in Education. Tokyo: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge Falmer.

Denscombe, M. (2007). Good research guide. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Omari, I.M. (2011). Concepts and Methods in Educational Research. Dar es Salaam: Oxford Univesity Press.

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd Revised Edition. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.neymudy8583@yahoo.com